4.1: Anumānādhikaraṇam - The limits of inference in obtaining knowledge
If some assume that avyakta in the passage refers to pradhāna, I say no. The metaphor refers to the body, it is clearly shown. “Body” in this passage refers to the subtle body.
« Vedānta-sūtra: The Govinda-bhāṣya of Baladeva Vidyābhūṣaṇa
Topic 1: Anumānādhikaraṇam - The limits of inference in obtaining knowledge
Defeating the atheistic Sānkhya
ānumānikam apy ekeṣām iti cen, na, śarīra-rūpaka-vinyasta-gṛhīter darśayati ca, sūkṣmam tu tad-arhatvāt, tad-adhīnatvād arthavat, jñeyatvāvacanāc ca, vadatīti cen na prājño hi prakaraṇāt, trayāṇām eva caivam upanyāsaḥ praśnaś ca, mahadvac ca
“If some assume that avyakta in the passage refers to pradhāna, I say no. The metaphor refers to the body, it is clearly shown. “Body” in this passage refers to the subtle body. This is appropriate in the context. This meaning should be accepted because pradhāna is ultimately dependent on the Lord, and also because it is not described in the text as an object of knowledge.
If one argues that pradhāna is described as the object of knowledge in another passage, I say it is not so. The reference applies to the omniscient Supreme Personality of Godhead. Only three subjects are introduced, answering three questions. Apart from that, the word mahat is already used as a modifier for ātmā.”
Sūtra 1.4.1 - Avyakta refers to the subtle body, and not to Pradhāna
ānumānikam apy ekeṣām iti cen na śarīra-rūpaka-vinyasta-gṛhīter darśayati ca
anumānikam: derived by inference; apy: even; ekeṣām: of some; iti cen: if it is said; na: not; śarīra: body; rūpaka: the metaphor, allegory; vinyasta: attributed; gṛhītair: by those who have accepted; darśayati: shows; ca: and.
If some assume that avyakta in the passage refers to pradhāna, I say no. The metaphor refers to the body, it is clearly shown.
Commentary: This sūtra examines a concept that is very central to the atheistic Sānkhya philosophy, which is the idea that everything that exists is a combination of pradhāna (the unmanifested mass of material elements) and puruṣa (the souls), excluding the idea of Īśvara (the Supreme Lord). According to their theory, through the interactions of the three modes, pradhāna (or prakṛti) is the ultimate cause of everything that exists, and puruṣa, the souls, get involved in the creation by falsely identifying with the different material manifestations.
This is, however, not at all supported in the Vedas. The Purāṇas include descriptions of how Lord Mahā-Viṣnu looks in the direction of the material energy, impregnating her with both kāla (the time energy), which puts her in motion, and the souls who desire to take part in the material creation. Similarly, the Upaniṣads are full of passages describing the Lord as being the cause of the material creation.
The Śvetāśvatara Upaniṣad 6.16, for example, states:
sa viśva-kṛd viśva-vid ātma-yonir, jñaḥ kāla-kālo guṇī sarva-vid yaḥ
pradhāna-kṣetra-jña-patir guṇeśaḥ, samsāra-mokṣa-sthiti-bandha-hetuḥ“The Lord is the creator of everything and the knower of everything. He dwells in the hearts of everyone as the Supersoul. He is omniscient and controls everything, even time itself. He has transcendental qualities and is the source of all knowledge. He is the Lord of both pradhāna, the unmanifested material nature, and the conditioned jīvas, who are part of His marginal energy. He is the master of the material modes, and the cause of bondage, sustenance, transmigration, and liberation.”
As we can see, it follows the same conclusions repeated all over the scriptures, describing the Lord as the creator, master, and knower of the whole material creation, and in fact everything.
On the other hand, no passage says that the pradhāna or prakṛti is the ultimate cause. Everywhere, prakṛti is described as the apparent cause, containing the material elements and the tools used to shape them (the three modes), but having no initiative of its own, just as stone, a chisel, and a hammer waiting for a sculptor to start his work.
Since Sānkhya is an āstika philosophy (derived from the Vedas), the followers must support their ideas with passages from the scriptures. This forces them to become creative and interpret verses out of context to try to give support to their theory. Take this passage, for example:
indriyebhyaḥ parā hy arthā, arthebhyaś ca param manaḥ
manasas tu parā buddhir, buddher ātmā mahān paraḥ
mahataḥ param avyaktam, avyaktāt puruṣaḥ paraḥ
puruṣān na param kiñcit, sā kāṣṭhā sā parā gatiḥ“Higher than the senses are the sense-objects; higher than the sense-objects is the mind; higher than the mind is intelligence; higher than intelligence is the great ātmā (mahāt). Higher than mahāt is avyakta. Superior to avyakta is the puruṣa. There is nothing superior to the puruṣa. That is the final goal.” (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.3.10-11)
The sense objects described in the verse are not the dull matter that composes food and other desirable objects, but the archetypal objects of enjoyment that manifest in different physical forms. Because they are subtle and animate the senses, they are described as superior to them. The mind is still higher because it coordinates and controls the senses, while the intelligence is still higher. These concepts are also described in the Bhāgavad-gītā; therefore, they are familiar to us.
In the verse from the Kaṭha Upaniṣad, three other components are mentioned: the great ātmā (mahāt), avyakta, and puruṣa, which is above all. The question is, who are they? According to the Sānkhya philosophy, puruṣa means the individual soul, but Vaiṣnavas understand that the word puruṣa refers to the Supreme Lord, who is above all. Puruṣa is thus the Supreme Lord, as Paramātmā, and the great ātmā or mahāt is the individual soul seated on the chariot of the body.
The idea of this analogy is that by understanding the ingredients of our material conditioned identity, we can learn how to properly use our intelligence to control the mind and the senses, and thus become firmly fixed in our spiritual practice, eventually realizing our eternal nature as transcendental souls and from there reviving our eternal relationship with the Lord.
This is more clearly explained in the Bhagavad-gītā 3.42-43:
indriyāṇi parāṇy āhur, indriyebhyaḥ param manaḥ
manasas tu parā buddhir, yo buddheḥ paratas tu saḥ
evam buddheḥ param buddhvā, samstabhyātmānam ātmanā
jahi śatrum mahā-bāho, kāma-rūpam durāsadam“The working senses are superior to dull matter; mind is higher than the senses; intelligence is still higher than the mind; and he [the soul] is even higher than the intelligence. Thus knowing oneself to be transcendental to the material senses, mind and intelligence, O mighty-armed Arjuna, one should steady the mind by deliberate spiritual intelligence [Kṛṣṇa consciousness] and thus – by spiritual strength – conquer this insatiable enemy known as lust.”
In this way, mahāt means the soul, and Purūṣa means the Supreme Lord. What about the meaning of avyakta?
The word avyakta means “unmanifested”. It is normally used to describe the Supreme Lord and the transcendental nature in general, which has no material form. However, in these two verses of the Kaṭha Upaniṣad, avyakta is used in a different sense, describing something that is higher than the soul, but less than the Lord as Paramātmā.
When we take the analogy and the references to it in the Bhagavad-gītā and other passages, it’s clear that the “avyakta” in the verse from the Kaṭha Upaniṣad refers to the body itself, or more specifically to the subtle body, which includes the subtle senses, the mind, intelligence, and the soul. This is the conclusion of Vyāsadeva, given in the current sūtra. The subtle body is called avyakta because it is subtle and invisible.
In this analogy, the body is compared with a chariot, the intelligence (buddhi) is compared to the charioteer, the mind (manas) with the reins, the sense objects (arthas) with the road, and the senses (indriyas) with the horses that pull the chariot. On top of this chariot is seated the soul.
Therefore, in this analogy, the sense objects are considered higher than the senses, the mind higher than the sense objects, the intelligence (used to guide the mind) superior to the mind, and the soul higher than the intelligence. What may sound unfamiliar, however, is avyakta, the subtle body, being described as superior to the soul. This comes from the logic that the whole is superior to its parts, just like a complete chariot is more than just the horses or the reins, or a complete tree is more than a branch or a fruit. It is just a logical construction, and should not be taken literally. Avyakta, or the subtle body, is counted thus as greater than the soul, because it includes the soul, but less than the Supreme Lord, or Puruṣa, who includes everything.
The followers of the Sānkhya philosophy, however, interpret it differently. For them, mahat is not the soul, but the mahat-tattva, which they define as the cosmic intelligence (the first transformation of the material energy), and avyakta refers to pradhāna, the unmanifested mass of material elements. This interpretation is only possible when the verse is taken out of context, but if accepted, it gives support to the Sānkhya thesis that pradhāna works independently.
According to this incorrect interpretation, the meaning of the verse becomes:
Superior to the senses are the sense objects. Superior to the sense objects is the mind. Superior to the mind is intelligence. Superior to intelligence is the mahat-tattva. Superior to the mahat-tattva is the unmanifest, pradhāna. Superior to pradhāna is the puruṣa (the individual soul of the Sānkhya philosophy).
As you can see, if accepted, this interpretation gives support to the idea that everything that exists comes from the combination of the souls and the unmanifested pradhāna, without the presence of God.
To this, Vyāsadeva answers: ānumānikam apy ekeṣām iti cen, na, śarīra-rūpaka-vinyasta-gṛhīter darśayati ca. If some accept the Sānkhya hypothesis that avyakta in the passage refers to the pradhāna, we say no, because avyakta in the metaphor clearly refers to the body, and not to pradhāna. In the correct interpretation, the analogy describes both the individual soul and the Lord, with the soul being subordinate to Him.
The conversation of Yamarāja and Nāciketa from the Kaṭha Upaniṣad
This meaning of avyakta as the subtle body indicated by Vyāsadeva becomes even more evident when the passage is examined in the context of the verses preceding it. This passage contains the instructions of Yamarāja to Nāciketa, revealing transcendental knowledge to him. In the passage, the verses are clearly put in the context of the analogy of the body as a chariot:
ṛtam pibantau sukṛtasya loke guhām praviṣṭau parame parārdhe
chāyātapau brahma-vido vadanti pañcāgnayo ye ca tri-ṇāciketāḥ
“The knowers of Brahman, who tend the five fires and perform the threefold nāciketa sacrifice, speak of the two beings who have entered the cave of the heart, the most excellent space, for performing pious deeds and experiencing the results of karma. They describe them as like shadow and light.” (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.3.1)
yaḥ setur ījānānām akṣaram brahma yat param
abhayam titīrṣatām pāram nāciketam śakemahi
“Let us meditate upon the Supreme Lord, the imperishable Brahman, who is the support for those who perform sacrifice, the fearless shore for those desiring to cross the ocean of samsāra and attain the transcendental abode. This Supreme Lord is obtained by the performance of the nāciketa sacrifice. “ (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.3.2)
ātmānam rathinam viddhi śarīram ratham eva ca,
buddhim tu sārathim viddhi manaḥ pragraham eva ca
“Know that the soul (ātmā) is the passenger, and that the body is the chariot. Know intelligence as the driver and the mind as the reins.” (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.3.3)
In many passages of the Upaniṣads, ātmā means the Supreme Lord. However, in this passage, ātmā means the soul inside the body, and mahat is an adjective applied to it. It’s important to note this point for properly understanding the conclusion made by Vyāsa in this passage. The sequence described in the passage is senses < sense objects < mind < intelligence < the soul < the subtle body (called avyakta because it is invisible) < the Lord (Puruṣa).
indriyāṇi hayāny āhur viṣayāms teṣu gocarān
ātmendriya-mano-yuktam bhoktety āhur manīṣiṇaḥ
“The wise say the senses are the horses, and the sense objects are the paths of the horses. They say that the soul encased by the body, senses, mind, and intelligence becomes thus the enjoyer of this world.” (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.3.4)
Intelligence, guided by the words of the scriptures, is supposed to discipline the activities of the mind, which in turn is supposed to restrain the senses. In this way, a person can act piously and gradually advance, even while on the path of material enjoyment.
yas tv avijñānavān bhavaty ayuktena manasā sadā
tasyendriyāṇy avaśyani duṣṭāśvā iva sāratheḥ
“However, the ignorant person, who lacks true knowledge and discrimination, wanders with an uncontrolled mind and unbridled senses, like a charioteer with unruly horses.” (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.3.5)
yas tu vijñānavān bhavati yuktena manasā sadā
tasyendriyāṇi vaśyāni sad-aśvā iva sāratheḥ
“He, on the other hand, who has knowledge along with a controlled mind, can keep his senses under control at all times, just like a skillful driver driving a chariot drawn by disciplined horses.” (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.3.6)
yas tv avijñānavān bhavaty amanaskaḥ sadā’śuciḥ
na sa tat-padam āpnoti samsāram cādhigacchati
yas tu vijñānavān bhavati sa-manaskaḥ sadā śuciḥ
sa tu tat-padam āpnoti yasmād bhūyo na jāyate
“He who is ignorant, remains always distracted and without self-control. Always impure, he does not attain the supreme state. Instead, he falls into the lower species and remains in the cycle of birth and death. But he who, endowed with knowledge, develops self-control and an attentive mind, remains always pure, attaining freedom. He attains the supreme destination, the place from which one has never to return.” (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.3.7-8)
vijñāna-sārathir yas tu manaḥ pragrahavān naraḥ
so’dhvanaḥ pāram āpnoti tad viṣṇoḥ paramam padam
“He who has spiritual realization as his charioteer, driving the chariot of the body with the reins of a controlled mind, crosses the ocean of birth and death and reaches the end of the journey, the supreme abode of Lord Viṣnu.” (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.3.9)
indriyebhyaḥ parā hy arthā, arthebhyaś ca param manaḥ
manasas tu parā buddhir, buddher ātmā mahān paraḥ
mahataḥ param avyaktam, avyaktāt puruṣaḥ paraḥ
puruṣān na param kiñcit, sā kāṣṭhā sā parā gatiḥ
“Higher than the senses are the sense-objects; higher than the sense-objects is the mind; higher than the mind is intelligence; higher than intelligence is the soul (mahāt). Higher than mahāt is avyakta (the subtle body, which includes all previous components). Superior to avyakta is the puruṣa (the Supreme Lord, as Paramātmā). There is nothing superior to the Lord. He is the final goal.” (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.3.10-11)
eṣa sarveṣu bhūteṣu gūḍho’tmā na prakāśate
dṛśyate tv agryayā buddhyā sūkṣmayā sūkṣma-darśibhiḥ
“This Supreme Self (the Lord) resides together with the soul in all beings, but He is hidden, not showing His radiance. However, He is seen by the wise, equipped with purified intelligence, which gives them the ability to perceive the spiritual.” (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.3.12)
yacched vān-manasī prājñas tad yacchej jñāna ātmani
jñānam ātmani mahati niyacchet tad yacchec chānta ātmani
“A wise person should control his speech, as well as all other senses, by the mind, and control the mind using the intelligence. He should then control the intelligence by the soul (mahat), who is the doer. The soul should then surrender unto the Lord within (ātmani, or antaryāmī), who eliminates all material urges (śānte).” (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.3.13)
uttiṣṭhata jāgrata prāpya varān nibodhata
kṣurasya dhārā niśitā duratyayā durgam pathas tat kavayo vadanti
“Stand up! Wake up! Approaching the great ācāryas, learn about the Lord. Be attentive. The wise declare this path to be sharp like the edge of a razor, hard to cross, difficult to tread.” (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.3.14)
Once a soul comes in contact with the material energy, it is easy to remain for many lives distracted by the many allurements of this material world. To finally become free, we need to become attentive to the process of self-realization. The wise ones described in the verse (kavayaḥ) are the jñanis, for whom the spiritual process is especially difficult, and who can fall due the smallest inattention. For Vaiṣnavas, the spiritual process is much easier because it is based on directly engaging the senses in the service of the Lord and acquiring a higher taste. However, just as Yamarāja cautions, we can be lost if we are not attentive to our practice, especially to the chanting of the holy names.
As Prabhupāda explains: “Unless one is sufficiently protected by the Lord, he may fall down from his spiritual position; therefore one has to pray constantly to the Lord for protection and the blessing to carry out one’s duty. Lord Caitanya also entrusted His missionary work to His devotees and assured them of His protection against the onslaught of material affection. The path of spiritual life is stated in the Vedas to be like the edge of a sharpened razor. A little inattentiveness may at once create havoc and bloodshed, but one who is a completely surrendered soul, always seeking protection from the Lord in the discharge of his entrusted duties, has no fear of falling into material contamination.” (SB 3.9.24, Purport)
aśabdam asparśam arūpam avyayam
tathā’rasam nityam agandhavac ca yat
anādy anantam mahataḥ param dhruvam
nicāyya tan mṛtyu-mukhāt pramucyate
“Seeing the Lord, who is eternally transcendental, unchanging, free from material qualities such as sound, touch, form, taste, and smell, who is without beginning and superior to the jīva, one becomes free from birth and death.” (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.3.15)
The soul is defined in this passage as mahat, and the Lord is mahataḥ param, superior to the individual soul. We should therefore surrender to the Lord to become free from birth and death. This is the conclusion of Yamarāja.
nāciketam upākhyānam mṛtyu-proktam sanātanam
uktvā śrutvā ca medhāvī brahma-loke mahīyate
“Having recited or heard this eternal story concerning the teachings of Yamarāja to Naciketā, the wise one becomes great and is glorified even in the spiritual world.” (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.3.16)
ya imam paramam guhyam śrāvayed brahma-samsadi
prayataḥ śrāddha-kāle vā tad ānantyāya kalpat
tad ānantyāya kalpata iti
Whoever recites this highest secret with purity and devotion in an assembly of brāhmanas dedicated to acquiring knowledge, or during the śrāddha ceremony, becomes eligible for infinite rewards. Indeed, such a supremely pious act leads one to immortality.” (Kaṭha Upaniṣad 1.3.17)
As we can see, just like in other references, the verse doesn’t at all offer support for the idea that the universe works without a supreme controller. This idea is also directly contradicted in the Bhagavad-gītā, as well as in other passages:
“Those who are demoniac do not know what is to be done and what is not to be done. Neither cleanliness nor proper behavior nor truth is found in them. They say that this world is unreal, with no foundation, no God in control. They say it is produced of sex desire and has no cause other than lust. Following such conclusions, the demoniac, who are lost to themselves and who have no intelligence, engage in unbeneficial, horrible works meant to destroy the world. (Bg 16.8)
This, as well as other points connected with the atheistic Sānkhya philosophy, will be discussed in detail in the other sūtras of this section.
Sūtra 1.4.2 - The appropriate definition
sūkṣmam tu tad-arhatvāt
sūkṣmam – the subtle body; tu – indeed, certainly; tad-arhatvāt – because it’s appropriate.
“Body” in this passage refers to the subtle body. This is appropriate in the context.
Commentary: In the Bhagavad-gītā, we see the word avyakta being used in the sense of “unmanifested”. In verse 9.4, for example, Kṛṣṇa says, “By Me, in My unmanifested form, this entire universe is pervaded. All beings are in Me, but I am not in them.”
Here, “unmanifested form” is the translation for avyakta-mūrtinā. The word avyakta can also be used to refer to prakṛti, or even to the spiritual world, since the spiritual world is transcendental in nature and not materially manifested. However, how can it be used in connection with the body (śarīra), which is composed of material elements and visible to the material eyes?
To this objection, Vyāsadeva answers: sūkṣmam tu tad-arhatvāt. The word avyakta in the passage of the Kaṭha Upaniṣad certainly means the sūkṣmam-sarira (the subtle body) because that’s the only appropriate use in the context of the verse. The word “tu” (certainly) is used to dispel any doubt regarding this.
When we speak about “body”, both the subtle and the gross bodies are included. Between the two, the subtle body is higher, since the gross body is created as a covering for it. The subtle body is invisible to the material eye; therefore, the word avyakta is appropriately used to describe it. We can observe the same usage of the word “avyakta” to denote the body in other passages. In SB 6.1.54, for example, the expression “vyakta-avyaktam” is used by Vyāsadeva to refer to both the subtle and gross bodies. The gross body is thus defined as vyakta (manifest) and the subtle body as avyakta, or unmanifest.
Sānkhya philosophers try to impose a different meaning on the verse, equating avyakta with the pradhāna to support their philosophy, but this is possible only when the verse is taken out of context and misinterpreted.
Śrīla Baladeva Vidyābhūṣaṇa explains the relationship of the gross and subtle bodies, quoting a fragment from the Bṛhad-āranyaka Upaniṣad (1.4.7):
tad dhedam tarhy avyākṛtam āsīt
“The universe was previously unmanifested”
This makes the point that although in the beginning the universe was not manifested (avyākṛtam), because of the presence of spirit, it later becomes manifested. Similarly, the subtle body is unmanifested, but because of the presence of the soul, it later becomes manifested as the gross body. Therefore, the usage of the term “avyakta” for the subtle body is appropriate.
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